WILD CAMEL BREEDING & RESEARCH CENTER

Early Historical and Foundational References

  1. Przewalski, N.M. (1883). Mongolia and the Tangut Country. London: Sampson Low. (Historically important early records of Wild Camels in Central Asia.)
  2. Bannikov, A.G. (1954). Wild Camels of the Gobi. Priroda, 43, 110–118.
  3. Heptner, V.G., Nasimovich, A.A., and Bannikov, A.G. (1961). Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol. I: Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla. Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola.
  4. Kozlov, P.K. (1929). Mongolia and Amdo and the Dead City of Khara-Khoto.
    (Contains early observations of Gobi fauna including Wild Camels.)
  5. Groves, C.P. (1969). On the relationship of the two-humped camels of Asia. Säugetierkundliche Mitteilungen, 17, 227–242.
    (Important early taxonomic discussion distinguishing wild and domestic Bactrian camels.)
  6. Bannikov, A.G. (1976). Wild camels of Mongolia and their present status. Proceedings of the Institute of Zoology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences.
    (Early Mongolian population and distribution assessment.)
  7. Hare, J. (1997). The Wild Camel Protection Foundation and the conservation status of the Wild Camel Camelus ferus. Oryx, 31(1), 45–48.
  8. Schaller, G.B. (1998). Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  9. Yuan, G., and Hare, J. (1998). The Wild Camel in China: status and distribution. Camel Newsletter, 15, 3–9.
  10. Jianlin, H., Ochieng, J.W., Lkhagvadorj, B., and Hanotte, O. (1999). Genetic diversity and relationship of domestic Bactrian camels and wild camels analyzed by microsatellite markers. Journal of Heredity, 90(5), 525–529.
  11. Reading, R.P., Mix, H., Lhagvasuren, B., Feh, C., Kane, D.P., Dulamtseren, S., and Enkhbold, S. (1999). Status and distribution of khulan (Equus hemionus) in Mongolia. Journal of Zoology, 247, 381–389.
  12. Yadamsuren, A., and Reading, R.P. (2000). Current status and conservation of the Wild Camel in Mongolia. Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences, 8(1), 15–22.
  13. Gentry, A., Clutton-Brock, J., and Groves, C. (2004). The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31, 645–651.

 

Genetics, Evolution, and Taxonomy

  1. Cui, P., Ji, R., Ding, F., Qi, D., Gao, H., Meng, H., Yu, J., Hu, S., and Zhang, H. (2007). A complete mitochondrial genome sequence of the wild two-humped camel (Camelus bactrianus ferus): an evolutionary history of Camelidae. BMC Genomics, 8, 241.
  2. Ji, R., Cui, P., Ding, F., Geng, J., Gao, H., Zhang, H., Yu, J., Hu, S., and Meng, H. (2009). Monophyletic origin of domestic Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) and its evolutionary relationship with the extant wild camel. Animal Genetics, 40(4), 377–382.
  3. Reading, R.P., Amgalanbaatar, S., and Lhagvasuren, B. (2001). Biological assessment of three beauties of the Gobi Desert, Mongolia. Biodiversity and Conservation, 10, 659–669.
    (Broader Gobi ecosystem assessment including Wild Camel distribution and threats.)
  4. Silbermayr, K., Orozco-terWengel, P., Charruau, P., Enkhbileg, D., Walzer, C., Vogl, C., Schwarzenberger, F., Kaczensky, P., and Burger, P.A. (2010). High mitochondrial differentiation levels between wild and domestic Bactrian camels: a basis for rapid detection of maternal hybridization. Animal Genetics, 41(3), 315–318.
  5. Wang, Z., Ding, G., Chen, G., Wang, L., Liang, Y., Guo, X., Liu, Y., Long, R., Yan, H., Qian, Y., et al. (2012). Genome sequences of wild and domestic Bactrian camels. Nature Communications, 3, 1202.
  6. Chuluunbat, B., Charruau, P., Silbermayr, K., Khorloojav, T., Burger, P.A., and Walzer, C. (2014). Genetic diversity and population structure of wild camels (Camelus ferus) in Mongolia.
    (Unpublished report / technical report.)
  7. Wu, H., Guang, X., Al-Fageeh, M.B., Cao, J., Pan, S., Zhou, H., Zhang, L., Abutarboush, M.H., Xing, Y., Xie, Z., et al. (2014). Camelid genomes reveal evolution and adaptation to desert environments. Nature Communications, 5, 5188.
  8. Burger, P.A., and Palmieri, N. (2014). Estimation of recent migration and detection of hybridization in wild and domestic Bactrian camels.
  9. Burger, P.A. (2016). The history of Old World camelids in the light of molecular genetics. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 48, 905–913.
  10. Mohandesan, E., Fitak, R.R., Corander, J., Yadamsuren, A., Chuluunbat, B., Abdelhadi, O., Raziq, A., Nagy, P., Walzer, C., Faye, B., and Burger, P.A. (2017). Mitogenome sequencing in the genus Camelus reveals evidence for purifying selection and long-term divergence between wild and domestic Bactrian camels. Scientific Reports, 7, 9970.
  11. Li, Y., Shi, J., Zhao, Y., and Liu, H. (2018). Molecular diversity and phylogenetic analysis of domestic and wild Bactrian camel populations based on the mitochondrial ATP8 and ATP6 genes. Mitochondrial DNA Part A, 29(1), 100–107.
  12. Zhang, Y., Xue, Y., Yadamsuren, A., Walzer, C., and Burger, P.A. (2019). RAD-Seq data advance captive-based conservation of wild Bactrian camels (Camelus ferus). Conservation Genetics, 20, 861–864.
  13. Burger, P.A., Ciani, E., and Faye, B. (2019). Old World camels in a modern world – a balancing act between conservation and genetic improvement. Animal Genetics, 50(6), 598–612.
  14. Felkel, S., Wallner, B., Chuluunbat, B., Yadamsuren, A., Faye, B., Brem, G., Walzer, C., and Burger, P.A. (2019). A first Y-chromosomal haplotype network to investigate male-driven population dynamics in domestic and wild Bactrian camels. Frontiers in Genetics, 10, 423.
  15. Fitak, R.R., Mohandesan, E., Corander, J., Yadamsuren, A., Chuluunbat, B., Abdelhadi, O., Raziq, A., Nagy, P., Walzer, C., and Burger, P.A. (2020). Genomic signatures of domestication in Old World camels. Communications Biology, 3, 316.
  16. Yuan, J., Li, F., Sun, Z., Stock, F., Tedford, R., Wang, Y., and Deng, T. (2021). Camelus knoblochi genome reveals the complex evolutionary history of Old World camels. Communications Biology, 4, 1395.
  17. Yan, T., Wang, L., and Zhao, X. (2022). Metagenomics reveals contrasting energy utilization patterns in wild Bactrian camels. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 873456.
  18. Chen, X., et al. (2025). Genetic diversity assessment of Camelus ferus based on Cytb gene and D-loop region. Journal of Arid Land Studies, 35(2), 115–124.
  19. Jemmett, A.M., Ewen, J.G., Yadamsuren, A., Dawson, D.A., Raggett, L., Burger, P.A., and Groombridge, J.J. (2026). Challenges of introgression in conservation: genetic diversity of the endangered wild camel (Camelus ferus). Ecology and Evolution, 16(4), e73293.

 

Ecology, Behavior, and Habitat Use

  1. Hare, J., and Yong, Y.L. (2002). Ecology and behavior of the Wild Camel Camelus ferus in the Lop Nur region, Xinjiang, China. Journal of Arid Environments, 52, 103–114.
  2. Kaczensky, P., Adiya, Y., von Wehrden, H., and Mijiddorj, B. (2014). Space and habitat use by wild Bactrian camels in the Transaltai Gobi of southern Mongolia. Biological Conservation, 169, 311–318.
  3. Yadamsuren, A., Reading, R.P., and Enkhbileg, D. (2016). The Present Status and Problems in the Preservation of Ungulate Animal Populations in the Arid Zones of Mongolia. Proceedings of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences, 56(2), 45–58.
  4. Yadamsuren, A., Daria, O., and Liu, S.C. (2019). The Seasonal Distribution of Wild Camels (Camelus ferus) in Relation to Changes of the Environmental Conditions in Mongolia. Open Journal of Ecology, 9, 293–314.
  5. Xue, Y., Li, J., and Li, D. (2021). The wild camel (Camelus ferus) in China: current status and conservation implications. Journal for Nature Conservation, 61, 125998.
  6. Xue, Y., Li, J., Zhang, Y., Li, D., Yuan, L., Cheng, Y., Liu, S., and Hacker, C.E. (2021). Assessing the vulnerability and adaptation strategies of wild camel to climate change in the Kumtag Desert of China. Global Ecology and Conservation, 29, e01725.
  7. Zhang, H., Liu, S., Lei, Y., and Yuan, L. (2025). Satellite tracking data for wild camels reveal the effects of climate change and human activities on habitat use. Global Ecology and Conservation, 58, e03422.
  8. Sihelská, M., Yadamsuren, A., Jemmett, A.M., and Burger,P.A. (2026). Parturition in the wild camel (Camelus ferus): the first in situ recorded observation. Mammalian Biology, 106, 45–52.

 

Conservation, Population Monitoring, and Management

  1. Hare, J. (1997). The wild Bactrian camel Camelus bactrianus ferus in China: the need for urgent action. Oryx, 31(1), 45–48.
  2. Hare, J. (2002). The return of the Wild Camel to Mongolia. Oryx, 36(4), 323–324.
  3. Hare, J. (2005). Survey of the Wild Camel in the Great Gobi A Strictly Protected Area. WCPF Technical Report.
  4. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Conservation and Management of the Wild Bactrian Camel. (2006). Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 12–14 October 2006.
  5. Yuan, G., Lei, Y., and Hare, J. (2007). Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve Management Report. Xinjiang Forestry Bureau.
  6. Hare, J. (2008). Camelus ferus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T63543A12689285.
  7. Silbermayr, K. (2013). Monitoring of the Mongolian Wild Camel (Camelus ferus) population using non-invasive genetic sampling. MSc Thesis, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna.
  8. Jemmett, A.M., Ewen, J.G., Groombridge, J.J., and Burger, P.A. (2022). What’s in a name? Common name misuse potentially confounds the conservation of the wild camel Camelus ferus. Oryx, 56(5), 701–704.
  9. Jemmett, A.M. (2024). Conservation genetics and population surveys of the critically endangered wild camel Camelus ferus in Mongolia. PhD Thesis, University of Kent / Zoological Society of London.
  10. Mallon, D., Yadamsuren, A., Hare, J., and Burger, P.A. (2025). Camelus ferus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2025.
  11. David M Leslie Jr., Anna M Jemmett, Alexei V Abramov. Camelus ferus (Artiodactyla: Camelidae). Mammalian Species. 2026 (58), 1044: seag001

 

Books and Major Reference Works

  1. Schaller, G.B. (1998). Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  2. Hare, J. (2009). Mysteries of the Gobi: Searching for Wild Camels and Lost Cities in the Heart of Asia. London: Abacus.
  3. Hare, J. (2012). Wild Camels of the Gobi. London: Merlin Unwin Books.